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Genetic modification, also interchangably known as genetic engineering or gene splicing, is a set of technologies that alter the genetic makeup of living organisms, such as animals, plants, or bacteria (1). It involves the isolation, manipulation, and reintroduction of DNA into cells. These techniques in genetics are generally known as recombinant DNA technology, which is the ability to combine DNA from multiple sources into a single molecule in a test tube (2).

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Genetically modified food then is a food product developed from a different genetically modified organism, GMO (3). The phenotype (i.e. the organism’s total appearance or a specific trait like size or behavior) can be changed through the modification of genes. The most common genetically modified organisms are crop plants. However, the technology has been applied to nearly all walks of life- including a pets that glow under UV light to goats which can produce spider silk (5).

Essentially, the aim of genetic modification is to introduce new physical or physiological attributes that through conventional breeding would not be possible (2) .

In the United States, it is estimated today that somewhere between 70-80% of all processed foods contain or stem from genetically modified organisms (4). The United States, unlike its European counterparts, does not have to label or in any way differentiate organic foods from genetically modified products. Americans, and citizens of other countries outside the European Union like India, China, Canada, Argentina, and Austrailia, who have relaxed regulations regarding the labeling of genetically altered foods, are unknowingly consuming GM crops (5).

The introduction of genetically modified foods into our ecosytem have the potential to disrupt the all walks of life- from microbes and bacteria, to the well-being and health of humans, to the extinction of endangered species, to potentially ending world hunger (6).

The decisions nations make today concerning genetically modified foods will affect all aspects of their lives. Eighteen percent of Earth’s land mass is used for agricultural production, and because the size of our planet is not increasing nor decreasing, the fraction of land available for agriculture cannot increase substantially. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary that crops harvested from this land increase beyond current levels given that the human population coninues to grow. Agricultural areas are lost to the growth and development of cities and other non-agricultural uses, while consumer diets in developing countries continue to switch from plant-based to animal-based protein, which is a trend that requires a greater amount of crop-based feed (3).

The first genetically modified food crop was a tomato created by the company Calgene, in California, called the FlavrSavr. The enhanced tomato was made more resistant to rotting. Engineers were able to add an antisense gene which interferes with the production of the enzyme polygalacturonase. After Calgene submitted FlavSavr to the Food and Drug Administration for testing, which determined that it was indeed a tomato and did not pose any health hazards, the company was allowed to release the tomato to consumers in 1994. Consumers were able to buy it at two to five times the price of a standard tomatoes. A year later, Monsanto, a leading multinational agricultural biotechnology corporation, bought Calgene (3).

Other examples of genetically modified crops have included cantalopes, herbicide resistant soybeans and sugarbeets, and pest resistant corn and cotton. However, not all of these products are available in grocery stores yet. Nonetheless, the prevalance of GM foods is supermarkets is quite common. Highly processed foods- like vegetable oils or breakfast cereals, most likely contain some percentage of genetically modified ingredients because raw ingredients have been pooled from different sources into one processing into one processing unit (4).

Worldwide cultivation of the four main commercial GM crops in 2002 (million hectares)

Here is a chart displaying the ratio between GM and Non GM crops of the four major products: Soybeans, Cotton, Canola, and Corn. (7)

In August of 1998, Dr. Arpad Pusztai, a nutrition researcher in Scotland, suggested that a few strains of genetically modified potatoes may actually be toxic to laboratory rats (5). Pusztai claimed that his experiments showed that rats fed on potatoes which had been genetically engineered to express a lectin suffered serious damage to their immune systems and had stunted growths. The lectin is also toxic to insects and nematodes and supposedly toxic to mammals (3).

Pusztai’s experiments were sent by The Royal British Society and reviewed by six independent experts and regarded that his data was not adequate enough to support the claims he had made for a number of reasons. Subsequently, Pusztai sent his results to 24 independent reviewers, who disagreed with the conclusions drawn upon by the previous review committee (3).

Although the results of Pusztai’s experiements are still largely contested, what followed was a European backlash of genetically modified foods. Today, there are strict guidelines and regulations for GM foods in the European market- including labelling and DNA bar codes. Recently conducted surveys still suggest that the public has a negative opinion of GM foods. In fact, third world countries in Africa have even rejected international food aid that have any trace of genetic modification (5).

Opponenets of genetically modified food often refer to genetically modified foods as “Frankenfood,” after the monster in Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein, for whom the book is named, in response to the decision of the FDA to allow the marketing of genetically modified food (3).

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The term is also used to voice the fear that the effects of GM crops are not fully understood and have not been accuratley accessed. These effects could be potentially harmful not only to humans but also cause severe disturbances in the balance of our ecosystem (3).

• The majority of GM agricultural products are developed specifically for toxin-resistance- namely higher doses of herbicides/pesticides sold by the largest producing companies, like Monsanto, even though the industry’s marketing pitch claims that bioengineered seeds and plants will help the environment by reducing toxic herbicide and pesticide use.

• Cultivating genetically cloned (and thus compositionally identical) seeds and plants has historically led to a loss of survival means, where infections and diseases in plants will spread like wildfiress. The variety of a particular crop provides adaptability, creating a constant resource to combat these infections.
• Genetically modified plants have alternative ways to create photosynthesis- they are hyper-tolerant and thus can be sprayed repeatedly wtihout killing the crop. However, residues are left on the plant, which the consumer will ingest. It was recently revealed that the government (to accomodate Monsanto, the leading GM corporation) raised pesticide residue limits on soy products from 6 parts per million to 20 parts.
• Glyphosphate, the active ingredient of Ready Roundup, an herbicide produced by Monsanto, was the third leading cause of farm worker illnesses.
• Klebsiella planticola, genetically modified bacterium, is meant to break down wood chips, corn stalks, and lumber wastes, actually renders the soil sterile. It killed essential soil nutrients. A similiar study with the GM bacteria Rhizbium melitoli showed that the toxins were lethal to the Monarch butterfly.
• Scientists speculate that Monsanto’s wheat will hybridize with goat grass, creating an invulnerable superweed. The manifestation of a superweed will not only make the problem of weeds worse, but it may also lead to plant invasions like that of the kutzu vine.
• There is an attempt underway to implement GM trees or “supertrees” throughout international forests which can be sprayed from the air to literally kill all surrounding life except GM trees, which are often sterile and flowerless. These GM trees are in stark contrast to the floral and fauna found in the rainforests, where a single tree can be host to thousands of unique species. This kind of engineering is often referred to as “death-engineering” rather than “life” or bio-engineering.
• Marine life is threatened by accidental release of GM fish currently under development in several countries. Trout, carp, and salmon have been shown to grow several times the normal size and growing up to six times as fast, which potentially wipe out their competitors in the wild. One accident has already happened in the Philippines, which threatens local fish supplies because there are currently no regulations for containment.
• Genetic pollution, caused by insects which are likely to pollinate organic plants and trees with transgenic elements, can reproduce itself forever in the wild, unlike chemical pollution, which eventually is dismantled or decays in the environment.
• The marketing of GM foods augments the centralization of power within the hands of giant corporations, like Monsanto. Two bioengineering firms have announced a GM vanilla plant, where vanilla can be grown at significantly lower costs. As a result, this could eliminate as many as 100,000 farmer’s jobs around the world. In fact, it is estimated that the biotech industry will find at least 14 billion dollars of substitutes for Third World farming products.
• Given the present rate of application of GM crops, in 50-100 years, organic foods may no longer be organic in composition.
• The nuaturally occuring pesticidal bacterium, bacillus thuringiensis, used as a tool to target insects and pests which feed off of crops will no longer be effective as a farming aide. Because genetically engineered Bt corn, potatoes, and cotton secrete this natural pesticide, the targeted insects and pests will grow immune to the naturally occuring pesticide. Therefore, it will be necessary to come up with stronger pesticides.

*Please note, all of these reasons were found here ( .

• Herbicide tolerant GM oil seed rape offers a reduced need for ploughing and soil cultivation, which can lead to reduced soil erosion. A reduction in soil erosion would lead to the protection of the structure and biodiversity of soil as well as increase it’s organic matter content.
• The newer herbicides used on GM crops are much more environmentally benign than older herbicides.
• Higher yielding hybrid GM oil seed rape can provide a greater yield for farmers, meaning that farmers will be able to produce more crops from the same area of land.
• GM carnations have been altered to yield flowers with new and different colours or to last longer after being cut. This opens up new markets for farmers and horticulturalists.
• Insect resistant GM cotton offers farmers massive benefits in insect pest control with huge savings on pest control products and energy use.
• Insect resistant GM maize offers the grower, insect management with less spraying, less effects on the environment and non-target pests.
• Insect resistant GM maize results in less wound damage to plants, and consequently less infection from fungus and a reduction in harmful mycotoxins that are cancer causing.
• Because maize is a major crop for animal feed, less damage to the crop makes for a high quality feed for healthier animals.
• Insect resistant GM maize reduces pest control inputs, energy consumption and green house gas emissions.
• With genetic modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under relatively hostile and harsh conditions- such as those in Africa, providing its people with much needed food (3).
• Golden rice, which is genetically modified rice varieties contain increased levels of vitamn A. The rice may serve to alleviate the vitamin A deficiency that contributes to the death of 500,000 people a year (3).

*Please note, the above percecived benefits were found here (9), except where otherwise noted.

1.) North America

• The United States- Today, the United States is the world’s leading genetically modified nation in terms of the area under cultivation and public acceptance of transgenic food. GM crops are literally everywhere and continue to grow, as they are used in food for both humans and animals. Currently, the U.S. does not require labelling of transgenic foods.
• Canada- The situation in Canada is quite similiar to that in The United States, where corn, soya beans, and canola are the most widely grown. However, there is a growing concern in both Canada and the U.S. of the introduction of GM wheat into farming. Canadian farmers, in particular, fear that the introduction of transgenic varieties will destroy their foreign markets, especially in Japan, where GM products are not welcomed by consumers.
• Mexico- Mexico is host to one of the oldest and most diverse varieties of maize in the world, so in order to protect genetic heritage, banned GM maize five years ago. Research has shown that GM maize is imported into the country for food and could have cross bred with some of the organic varieties because labelling of transgenic foods is not required

2.) South America

• Brazil- Recently, the country has approving the planting of GM soya beans for the year’s growing season, which would lead to permanent legalization of the crop. Regardless of the fact that in 1998 Brazil had banned GM crops, researchers invested in the issue of genetic modification continued to plant transgenic crops. It is believed that as much as 80% of soya bean crop is transgenic in some states of the country. These seeds were no doubt imported from neighboring country, Argentina, where the government is largely in support of GM.

3.) Europe

• The European Union is believed to begin approving commercial plantings of GM crops again, after a five year hiatus. Much of the controversy over introduction of transgenic crops has been removed now that the EU has determined a set of rules and regulations regarding the labelling and tracking of GM produce. However, it is expected that individual states will fight for GM-free areas in case any unforseen events transpire after their implementation.

4.) Africa

• Currently, South Africa is the only country in Africa with a developed commercial sector. Many agritech industries see other African countries are important testing grounds for their GM products and are presently trying to persuade their governments and peoples.

5.) Asia

• India- India could become a huge ground for transgenic cotton, as it is the world’s leading producer of cotton. Attitudes concerning GM crops are more influenced by national pride, where the focus is in opposition to the foreign corporations rather than homegrown technologies. Generally speaking, the government supports domestic research, and are currently working on some homegrown transgenic crops. However, the government recently banned the the import of maize-soya flour from US aid agencies after several environmental organizations protested their potential GM content.

• China- The country was ploughing ahead with efforts to commercially introduce GM crops into the nation, but suddenly backed off in 2000. China claims the shying away is due to the risks associated with transgenic crops, but critics have argued that the country is actually stalling until they can compete in foreign markets with their own domestic brands of transgenic crops.

• Japan- Currently, 35 food plants have been given approval to plant transgenic crops and 55 have passed the country’s food safety provisions. However, none are being planted or cultivated on a commercial scale because of the lack of consumer demand.

6.) Australia

• Australia- Currently farmers can only plant up 30% of their cotton crop using transgenic varieties, in order to reduec the likelihood of insects and pests developing a resistance to insecticidal toxins. However, a new version of the cotton has recently been approved, which will allow farmers to cover up to 80% of their land using transgenic varieties because this newer version produces two insecticidal toxins.

*All information referenced from here (7).

** Click here for a chart comparing the prevalance of GM crops in the U.S. and South Africa, as well as a global average use of transgenic crops. GM Crops

In 2001, four countries represented 99% of total GM surface (3) :

• The United States 68%
• Argentina 22%
• Canada 6%
• China 3%

In 2003, the countries that represented 99% of gobal transgenic gcrops were (1) :

• The United States 63%
• Argentina 21%
• Canada 6%
• Brazil 4%
• China 4%
• South Africa 1%

In 2005, approximately 8.5 million farmers in 21 countries grew transgenic crops (3).

It was estimated that by the year 2006, in the U.S. 89% of soybeans, 83% of cotton, and 61% maize would be of genetically modified varieties (3).

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The above graph shows a growing trend and increase in global use of transgenic crops. The adoption of GM crops has been most rapid in the United States (partly becuase of the lax regulations regarding labelling and traceability) where there has been a 27 fold increase in a span of 8 years (19).

In 2002, a survey measuring consumer attitudes toward genetically modified foods was conducted in China. Five hundred and ninety-nine consumers were surveyed in four separate locations. Generally, the survey concluded that most consumers had little to no knowledge of genetically modified food, however, researchers found that consumers regarded and alluded to GM positively, especially in terms of products-enhancing traits. These results imply that there is a potential market for genetically modified foods in China, unlike in Japan and the EU (10).

Summary statistics for consumer information and perception variables.

*Statistics and chart referencfed from here (10).